The American Spiritual
Marie Stultz, Contributing EditorMusicians have been composing, singing, and programming spirituals since the 1700's, long after the African-American first arrived on our shores in 1619. In the 20th century they have been popular with audiences and congregations all over the world, due in part to their first introduction to large white audiences in America and Europe in 1871. The Fisk University Jubilee Singers from Nashville Tennessee began singing a wide variety of these inspiring songs on tour to raise money for their all black university. These popular performances eventually stimulated a plethora of arrangements for varying voice parts by both white and black composers throughout the 20th century.
The 21st century continues to have a romance with these great melodies to such an extent that Oxford University Press has issued two major collections for SATB voices. Interestingly enough, both collections follow the white and black spiritual creation history. A review of these different, but excellent editions follows some historical perspectives.
A BRIEF HISTORY
Historians collected the American spiritual from 1740 until 1900. Interest in the style was so great that it also generated original tunes in the 20th century. The entire embodiment of this folk song movement eventually became the genesis for one of the world's most popular musical art forms, jazz. Spirituals were written by both white and black Americans, and were influenced by musical styles both here in America and in Europe. Their creation spanned from the American revivalist movement to slavery on the plantations in the South. They were also influenced by European writers such as Isaac Watts, whose words and melodies became popular in the black churches of the South.Technically, spirituals can be defined as religious songs set to folk melodies. There are four categories of spiritual folk songs: religious ballads, folk hymns, the camp meeting spiritual, and the revival spiritual song in which the Negro spiritual is included.
The first three categories are considered to be part of the white spiritual catalog and are directly related to revival meetings. The last category represents music by both white and black writers. The differences between the evolution of the two are that the white spirituals were written down and evolved to be much more metric in nature. The black spirituals were part of an enormous oral tradition that was not notated until 1870. These pieces are highly rhythmic in nature and in general are more melancholy, with regular recurring refrains sung by leader and then chorus.
THE WHITE SPIRITUAL
The white spiritual was virtually unrecognized until George Pullen Jackson, professor at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee published White Spirituals in the Southern Uplands in 1933. He wrote the first of many studies which documented both the white and black spiritual tradition. The white spiritual had both a notated and oral tradition dating back to pre-Revolutionary days.The white spiritual first took the form as a folk hymn or religious ballad which was "basically a secular folk tune which happens to be sung to a religious text." The second type, the camp-meeting spiritual is closely related to the folk hymn, but usually has texts that are simple, with a lot of repetitions, refrains, and tag lines. Included in these types of spirituals are such tunes as Amazing Grace, JEWETT (text John Newton, 1789, music R.F. Mann 1869) and I Know That My Redeemer Lives, ANTIOCH (text Samuel Medley, about 1784, music F.C. Wood, 1850).
The first appearance of the white spiritual in publication happened in Boston in 1742 under the title A Song of Praise by J. Davenport. A second collection appeared in New London, Connecticut in 1774 by S. Occom entitled A Choice Collection of Hymns and Spiritual Song Intended for the Sincere Christians of all Denominations. One of the more popular publications is the Wyeth collections of religious songs in two, three, and four voice-parts which included both ballads and hymns. John Wyeth (1770-1858) published his Repository of Sacred Music in 1810 and Repository of Sacred Music, Part Second in 1813, with the second collection containing the largest body of spiritual folk songs. Unfortunately both of these are out of print, but could probably be located in music libraries.
THE BLACK SPIRITUAL
The black spiritual is one of the largest body of American folk music to make it into the 20th century. It is also the best known of all the American spirituals throughout the world. They are best associated with the African-American church, particularly in the deep south.Most of these tunes were created on the southern plantations long before the Civil War. Sung in unison, improvisation had an early hand in their musical gesture. There are two clear origins of the black spiritual. One from Africa with "the shout" or "ring shout" as perfect examples of that continent's influence on their creation. In general, these were the most joyous pieces. They were often antiphonal, with elements of stomping and shouting. The plantation spirituals, on the other hand, were more melancholy in nature and called "sorrow songs." These slow-moving, sad songs include such great tunes as Sometimes I feel Like a Motherless Child and Nobody Knows the a Trouble I Seen. References to death are a recurrent theme throughout all of them.
Many black spirituals were orally created after exposure to the white spiritual movement. Another equally important influence was the exposure to European writers such as Englishman Isaac Watts (1674-1748). His poems and music along with others made it into their churches through the tradition of "lining out". The habit of someone singing the melody of the European composers they liked with the congregation answering became enormously popular. The European music traditions they were exposed to, filtered with the American hymnody form they experienced in their churches, was about to influence this outpouring of oral folk music of passionate despair and hope. Coupled with their African origins, this form took enormous root in the oral traditions of black Americans.
The body of these melodies was first published as texts in 1860 during the Civil War. Colonel Thomas Wentworth Higginson was in command of a black regiment when he heard them sung. After listening to his troops, he carefully began to write down the words of these powerful folk songs in a diary that was later published. The living publication of this great folk music was just about to begin.
A BRIGHT FUTURE
Because of their direct association to the diverse elements of jazz and their popularity both here and abroad, the American spiritual will always have a bright future. When programming these wonderful hymn/folk songs, however, it is critical to pick well-written arrangements.
There have been a number of giants who have contributed great arrangements to the American spiritual art form. One of the most influential was Jester Hairston, an African-American who championed accuracy and artistry in the transcription and arrangements of some of the finest melodies of this great tradition. One of the most notable collections for treble voices is a book of Christmas spirituals published by Bourne. Contained in this fine collection is Go Tell It On the Mountains, Mary's Little Boy Chile, Rise Up, Shepherd, and Foller, and Wasn't That a Mighty Day, as well as many others. Bourne also publishers a collection of Spirituals & Folk Songs for SATB voices, as well as over 50 individual arrangements.
The team of Robert Shaw and Alice Parker also cannot be overlooked. Their tireless exploration into this great body of oral and written music history is a phenomenon of the 20th century. Many of their arrangements are still in print, a number published by Lawson-Gould. The accessible arrangements of William Dawson, published by Kjos, have enjoyed a long popularity with choruses of all levels, while newer editions by Moses Hogan, most published by Hal Leonard, have added richer and more elaborate arrangements for advanced choirs.
The exploration of the American spiritual could and should be a life-long experience. As our first American music art form it deserves our constant exploration and attention.
TWO FABULOUS NEW COLLECTIONS FROM OXFORD
Oxford University Press has obviously realized how important the American spiritual is as a body of music in the world. Choirs from Prague to Japan sing this engaging music and often with distinction. Below is a review of two recent publications. The first is a collection of originally arranged spirituals organized by English composer Bob Chilcott. It is interesting that English writer Issac Watts had such an enormous influence on this art form and that this countryman follows in his path to pull a collection of arrangements together of equal quality and influence. The second publication is collected by African-American arranger and composer Moses Hogan. It contains a wide range of arrangements from 1914 to 2001 and is more historic in its origins.Spirituals for Choirs~20 Specially Commissioned Choral Arrangements, compiled and edited by Bob Chilcott, English text, Oxford, 343537-3, SATB voices piano or a cappella. Bob Chilcott, as a member of the King's Choir in Cambridge and the King's Singers, has sung and arranged spirituals for most of his life. In that time, he sang many spirituals which he describes in the following manner: "I have found that to sing spirituals is a liberating experience. The joy, the anguish, and the beauty found in the words and music communicate immediately, not only to the singer but also to the listener. The songs seem timeless and speak to all people." As part of that feeling of devotion to this wonderful art form, he has engaged nine arrangers to put together a collection of 20 familiar and unfamiliar tunes by writers of varying backgrounds and musical experiences, bringing a fresh look to these great melodies. Included in the collection is Chilcott's arrangements of All My Trials, By and By, Didn't It Rain, Ev'ry Time I Feel the Spirit, and Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen. Included in the collection are such wonderful arrangers as Jon Washburn, Roderick Williams, Steve Barnett, Lydia Adams, and Paul Hart, to name a few. This collection shows a lot of originality and freshness, while demonstrating a tremendous respect for the rhythmic gesture and melodic aura of the tunes themselves. This is an extremely fine anthology of new arrangements collected by someone who has experienced audiences all over the world, audiences who love the American spiritual. Difficulty code 3-5. $14.95
The Oxford Book of Spirituals, edited by Moses Hogan, English text, Oxford, 386304-9, SATB, piano or a cappella. This collection is very special in that it includes arrangements from the early 20th century into the 21st century. The collection includes such distinguished arrangers as John Work, William Grant Still, Robert Shaw, Alice Parker, Jester Hairston, and Moses Hogan. Set up chronologically, a vast array of songs that are familiar and less familiar is included. Hogan has included 28 of the more significant arranged melodies in this collection over the past century. A distinguished African-American, Hogan is internationally renowned as a pianist, conductor, and arranger who is dedicated to the preservation of this art form. What is special about this edition, beyond the music itself, is some important historic notes as well as some comments on African-American dialect by James Weldon Johnson. It is refreshing to see these important contributors recognize the fact that this dialect is not demeaning but important to the overall artistic gesture. What an historic account for all of us to own. Bravo! Difficulty rating 3-5. $18.95
RESOURCES FOR THIS ARTICLE
Music in the United States: A Historical Introduction by H. Wiley HitchcockThe New Harvard Dictionary of Music edited by Don Michael Randel
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians edited by Stanley Sadie
Music in a New Foundland/Themes and Developments in the History of American Music by Wilfrid Mellers
New Releases ~ Sacred SATB Voices ~ Sacred
Adonai Ro'i (The Lord is My Shepherd), by Gerald Cohen, Hebrew text, Transcontinental, 993121, SATB & keyboard. This lovely arrangement of Psalm 23 was originally composed as a solo, and then arranged for chorus as a commission from the Zamir Chorale of Boston. The beautiful melody line begins in the sopranos and altos, with a soothing counterpoint by the tenors and an organ-like under-pinning by the basses. Later in the piece the tenors and basses pick up the melody with harmony supplied by the altos and sopranos. It requires a choir with good intonation and light tone. There is a brief solo line for a high voice that can sing softly. Pronunciation guide is provided. Difficulty rating 3-4. $2.75
Arise, my love, by Julian Wachner, English text, ECS, 5808, SATB & organ. This setting of the famous text from Solomon (King James Version) contains a lot of octave partwriting and lilting counterpoint. The organ part requires an accomplished organist. Filled with challenging rhythms and some complicated intervals, it requires a good sized choir. The piece has been recorded by The Boston Bach Ensemble on ARSIS Audio CD, the composer conducting. Difficulty rating 4. $1.65
God Speaks to Each of Us, by Gwyneth Walker, English text, ECS, 5664, SATB & organ. This piece opens simply with all four parts written in octaves. Set to a text from "Rilke's Book of Hours: Love Poems to God," the choral parts are composed over a florid organ accompaniment. Filled with warm and effective harmonies that beautifully express the sensitive text, preparing a performance of this piece will be quite satisfying. Difficulty rating 3-4. $1.70
God, You Made All Things for Singing, by John Ferguson, English text, MorningStar, 50-8503, SATB & organ. This simple anthem is set to a text by Thomas H. Troeger from an Oxford publication entitled Above the Moon Earth Rises. Ferguson bases the piece on the tune by Harold Friedel called Union Seminary. The piece would work well with a choir of small forces. Difficulty rating 3. $1.75
O God, You Are My God (Psalm 63), by Jane Marshall, English text, ECS, 5738, SATB & organ. Marshall has created lovely harmonies to expound a selection from Psalm 63. The optional use of spoken Hebrew placed intermittently into the anthem makes this piece quite unusual. Perfect for joint services between Christians and Jews, the English text is taken from a translation of the psalm in "The Gates of Prayer," the Reform Jewish Sabbath and Festival prayer book. Difficulty rating 3. $1.25
Out of the Depths (De Profundis), by Robert Kyr, English text, ECS, 5802, SATB a cappella. Dark harmonies and challenging rhythms dominate this a cappella piece that is appropriate for Lent and most appropriately for Maundy Thursday. This beautiful anthem requires an accomplished choir that can sing the elegant phrase shapes and very specific dynamics. Taken from Psalm 130, the composer has adapted some of the text to fit the musical gesture. Difficulty rating 4. $1.65
Strengthen for Service, Lord, by Ronald Arnatt, English text, ECS, 5673, SATB, solo voice, a cappella. Terse harmonies are placed in juxtaposition to warm harmonies in this short a cappella piece. Composed mostly homophonically with some simple counterpoint between the voice parts, this is ideal contemporary service music. The unison opening and accessible partwriting will help the busy organist program a fine piece in a very difficult season. It is set to a text from the Syriac Liturgy of Malabar which was translated by C.W. Humphreys (1840-1921). Difficulty rating 3. $1.35
The Last Invocation, by Robert Starer, English text, ECS, 1.3314, SATB & keyboard. This anthem opens simply but soon expands into some very challenging harmonies. Set to a text by Walt Whitman, the melody sensitively reflects the powerful words. In a brief program note in the publication Starer says, "What attracted me to this late poem by Walt Whitman is the word 'tenderly' at its opening and near its conclusion, as well as the sentence 'let me glide noiselessly.'" Starer died on April 22, 2001 just a month after preparing this edition. Difficulty rating 4. $2.40
Thee Will I Praise, by Craig Phillips, English text, ECS, 5718, SATB & organ with optional brass quintet. Written for the Westminster Presbyterian Church, Lincoln, Nebraska, in honor of their two ministers' many years of service, this piece requires accomplished performers. Complicated rhythms and intricate partwriting make this piece a challenge for both choir and organist. The text is an adaptation and paraphrase of Psalm 138 taken from The Scottish Psalter by the composer. The text was appropriately chosen to be used on the church's annual Heritage Sunday. Difficulty rating 4. $1.95
Two Responses, by Jim Taylor, English text, Oxford, 386368-5, SATB & keyboard. These two bright settings are short but quite effective. The use of octaves and brilliant interval writing make both pieces perfect for a festival environment. Difficulty rating 3. $1.50
Treble Voices ~ Sacred
All Things Bright and Beautiful, arr. John Ferguson, English text, Lorenz, CGA910, unison, congregation, finger cymbals, organ, & optional flute. This practical arrangement is a wonderful alternative to just singing a hymn. The congregation's part is woven into the fabric of the anthem, while the easy flute part can be played by an accomplished amateur. The straightforward organ part supports the singers and the hand drum and finger cymbals add to the joyfulness of the text. A bulletin insert is included at the back of the edition. Difficulty rating 2. $1.60Alleluia! Sing for Joy!, by Jean Baptiste Lully, English text, BriLee Music, BL339, SA, keyboard, with optional flute & hand drum. This adaptation by Patrick Liebergen is a joyous piece. The flute part weaves beautifully through the voice parts which are composed homophonically. The text was created by the arranger and works quite nicely for festival or general use. Difficulty rating 3. $1.50
Audi Voces, by György Orbán, Latin text, Hinshaw, HMC-1877, SSAA a cappella. Complex rhythmic phrases, challenging counterpoint, and wide ranges dominate this unusual piece. Set to a text by an unknown Zagreb poet, this Hymn to the Virgin Mary is extremely effective. The piece requires a very accomplished treble ensemble. Because of the low tessitura of the alto and second soprano part, it is probably more appropriate on women's voices. Difficulty rating 4-5. $1.40
Come, Children, and Join in Our Festival Song, arr. Helen Kemp, English text, Lorenz, CGA913, unison & piano, 2 flutes, cello, handbells (2 octaves), and hand chimes (1 octave). This very simple arrangement is quite effective because of the use of the various instruments and handbells. The cello and flute parts can be easily handled by amateur players. This is a joyful setting and perfect for a large festival or exchange concert. Difficulty rating 1. $1.60
I Sing a Song of the Saints of God, by Jim Taylor, English text, Oxford, 386367-7, SSA & keyboard with optional snare drum. Written mostly in unison, the change of key towards the end of the piece is written in simple homophonic thirds. Set to a tune by John Henry Hopkins, the text was written by Lesbia Scott. It can be sung completely in unison or in parts. The piece is perfect for developing secure partsinging as you teach children about triads. Difficulty rating 3. $1.75
Let Us Go Carolling, by James Helme Sutcliffe, English text, Boosey, M051-46829-4, SSA & keyboard. This is an extremely effective original carol. Composed to a text written by the composer, it opens in unison on changing meter signatures. The two and three part writing is quite joyous, but very accessible. A real winner, it is perfect for the accomplished children's or woman's chorus. Difficulty rating 3. $1.50
Three German Carols, arr. Derek Holman, English/Latin text, Hinshaw, HMC1903, SSA, optional solo, a cappella. These simple a cappella arrangements were written for the Canadian Children's Opera Chorus. Edited by Jean Ashworth Bartle, the publication includes In Dulci Jubilo, Es ist ein Ros'entsprungen, and Shepherds to Bethlem hasten, all translated by the arranger. Only the first piece is in the original language, the other two are in English. Difficulty rating 3. $1.40
Men's Voices ~ Sacred
O Gloriosa Domina, by Nicolas Gombert (c.1490-1556), Latin text, Shawnee, MF 1000, TTBB a cappella. Edited by Jameson Marvin for the Harvard Glee Club, this publication has been updated to contemporary standards (bar lines added, etc.) Complete information on the edition and program notes are included. Difficulty rating 3-4. $1.40
SAB Voices ~ Sacred
Two Renaissance Chorals, arr. Russell Robinson, Latin text, Warner, OCTM02006, SAB a cappella. Included in this edition are the Adoramus te by Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina and Ave Maria by Jacob Arcadelt. Editions like this are always needed for the small church choir. These arrangements work quite nicely and are edited in the original language. Difficulty rating 3. $1.40
New Releases ~ Secular SATB Voices ~ Secular
Miracolo D'amore, by Richard Peaslee, Italian text, Boosey, M-051-47075-4, SATB & piano with optional violin, viola, cello, & guitar. This extended work is presented in seven movements. The moving text by Arlotti is beautifully translated by Teddy Jefferson. The instrumental parts are available separately from the publisher. This piece is a real challenge but breathtakingly moving. The first movement begins with soloists with the choir providing the accompaniment to the florid voice writing. Much of the piece is a cappella and contains some lovely homophonic writing on changing meters as well as gratifying counterpoint. Only four movements are accompanied; the remaining movements are sung a cappella. The piece requires an accomplished choir. Difficulty rating 4. $3.75
Sleep, by Eric Whitacre, English text, Hal Leonard, 08501462, SATB a cappella. This commission has a very unusual history. Composer Eric Whitacre composed this piece to Robert Frost's "Stopping By Woods" at the request of the commissioner. In the meantime, many settings of this text appeared on the market. Because there were so many settings flooding the market, the Frost estate made the decision not to allow this composer to use the text, even though the piece was completed. In desperation, the composer approached Charles Anthony Silvestri to write a poem that would fit the music and have the metric pattern of the Frost poem. The end result is an absolutely exquisite creation. The music starts delicately on lustrous homophonic chords on changing meters. The carefully placed dynamics add to the effectiveness of this beautiful work. Difficulty rating 3-4. $1.95
While I Live, by Robert Starer, English text, ECS, 1.3313, SATB a cappella. Set to an adapted text by the composer from a powerful poem by Walt Whitman entitled "Songs of Joys," this piece is wonderfully affirming. Like The Last Invocation, this edition was completed a month before the composer's death. Written homophonically, spectacular harmonies are juxtaposed against octave partwriting. This piece is truly joyful and a wonderful celebration of life. Difficulty rating 3-4. $1.95
Extended Collection
G & S for Choirs, arr. Peter Gritton, English text, Oxford, 343631-0, SATB Voices & piano. This wonderful collection of 18 solo songs and ensembles taken from the Savoy Operas are beautifully arranged. They range from a cappella pieces to accompanied gems that are lesser known. Included in the collection are such popular songs as "A Modern Major General," "The Nightmare Song," and "A Wandering Minstrel I" to name a few. Lesser known pieces such as "The Ape and the Lady" and "Buon'giorno, Signorine" are also included. The pieces have been arranged to be accessible for the amateur singer to enjoy. An excellent collection to add to your choir's library. Difficulty rating 3-4. $12.95
Treble Voices~SecularAria (from the Orchestral Suite No. 3 in D Major), by J.S. Bach, nonsense syllables, Hinshaw, HMC1852, SSAA a cappella. Arranged by Malcolm V. Edwards, the piece is set on neutral syllables. Typical of Bach's music, it is always tricky to sing and keep in tune. Crossing voice parts add to the musical challenge. Difficulty rating 4. $1.25
Beautiful Soup, by Tom Benjamin, English text, Oxford, 386376-6, SA & piano. This clever setting of a Lewis Carroll text from Alice in Wonderland will be great fun to sing. Filled with humor and some tricky intervals, children will have great fun creating the mood of this short clever piece. Difficulty rating 3. $1.25
A Canadian Boat Song, by Persis Anne Vehar, English text, Boosey, M-051-47338-0, SA & piano. Tone clusters and warm harmonies in the piano part support a lot of unison and simple two-part writing in the vocal lines. Written in the middle tessitura of the voice, the end of the piece concludes on a powerful four-part double forte on g2. The piano part is written to imitate the waves of the water. The piece is set to a text by Thomas Moore (1779-1852). Difficulty rating 3. $1.50
Dwa Serduszka, arr. Stephen Hatfield, Polish text, Boosey, M-051-47359-5, SSAA a cappella. This arrangement of a Polish folk song is a real challenge. Filled with intense rhythms and powerful harmonies, the edition contains a complete pronunciation and performance guide. Edited by Doreen Rao, the piece has changing dynamics and challenging rhythms. It requires an accomplished treble choir. Difficulty rating 4-5. $2.50
SAB Voices ~ Secular
Birdsong, by Raymond Smolover, arr. Nora Kroll-Rosenbaum, English text, Transcontinental, 993147, SAB a cappella. The melody for this piece was composed 30 years ago, with text taken from a poem written by a child in the Terezin Concentration Camp between 1942-44. Kroll-Rosenbaum has created an exquisitely sensitive arrangement for SAB chorus and it is an excellent piece for a Holocaust Remembrance program. The harmonies are haunting and contemporary, and although there is great sorrow in the piece, it is also a reminder of "how good it is to be alive." Difficulty rating 3. $2.00Rise Up With Song, by Alessandro Stradella, English text, BriLee, BL336, SAB & keyboard with optional flutes. This arrangement is perfect for the small middle or high school choir. The optional flute parts can be played by amateur performers. It is taken from Stradella's dramatic work Il barcheggio, which he wrote in Genoa in 1681. The piano part is a reduction of the instrumental parts. Transposed down a major second, the piece uses an English text by the arranger. Performance notes are included in the edition. Difficulty rating 3. $1.60
Sweeter Than the King's Wine, arr. Stephen Hatfield, English text, Boosey, M-051-47374-8, SAB a cappella. This madrigal adaptation by Hatfield is quite effective. Set to a text by the composer, it is written with simple rhythms and straightforward counterpoint. The piece utilizes a lot of octave writing, which is contrasted by some simple counterpoint. This short piece was written for St. Thaddeus Episcopal Church in Chattanooga, Tennessee. Difficulty rating 3. $1.25